What is a Digital Integrated Circuit? In an integrated circuit, components such as diodes, transistors, resistors, inductors etc. are integral parts of the chip. And on surface of this chip, which is very small piece of semiconductor material, miniature circuits are produced by using advanced photographic technique. The finished network is so small that microscope […]
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Analog Storage Oscilloscope Block Diagram and Its Workings: Storage targets can be distinguished from standard phosphor targets by their ability to retain a waveform pattern for a long time (10 to 150 hours after the pattern is produced on the screen). In a conventional CRT the persistence of the phosphor varies from a few milliseconds
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Basic Oscilloscope Patterns: CRO is a very versatile instrument in laboratory for measurement of voltage, current, frequency and phase angle of any electrical quantity. But before we go ahead with discussion on measurement of electrical quantities with CRO, we should understand some basic oscilloscope patterns. Assume that a sinusoidal voltage signal is applied to the
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Display of Electrical signals by Oscilloscope: The are two basic ways of display of Electrical signals by Oscilloscope—the X-Y mode and the triggered-sweep mode. The X-Y mode displays the graph of the variation of two external signals—one versus the other. The triggered-sweep mode displays the variation of only one external signal as it varies with
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Basic Controls of CRO: Number of controls are required to be provided on a panel of CRO to facilitate its proper functioning. Intensity control is provided for adjustment of brightness of the spot on the screen. It is accomplished by varying the voltage between the first and second anodes. The horizontal and vertical position controls
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What is Focusing Device in Cathode Ray Oscilloscope and why it is required? Because of the mutual repulsion between the electrons, the convergent beam coming out from the accelerating anode has a tendency to spread from the axis. To avoid this and to bring the beam to a sharp focus at the screen, some Focusing
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Block Diagram of a General Purpose CRO and its workings: The modern time-domain General Purpose CRO, regardless of its sophistication, consists of the following main units. Cathode ray tube (CRT) — display device. Power supplies and internal circuits. Vertical amplifier (include probe or transducer to obtain an electrical signal). Time base or sweep generator. Horizontal
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Conversion of Hybrid Parameters in Transistor Three Configurations: Some transistor manufacturers provide only the four CE hybrid parameters while others provide CB hybrid parameters. Sometimes, for a specific purpose, it becomes necessary to convert one set of h parameters in one configuration to another set in another configuration. The conversion formulas can be obtained using
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Variations of Hybrid Parameters of a Transistor: The variation of h parameters depends upon junction temperature, collector current and collector-to-emitter voltage VCE. Among these factors, the variations of Hybrid Parameters of a Transistor due to junction temperature and collector current are significant and thus discussed here. Variation of h Parameters Due to Temperature Variation: From
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Determination of h Parameters from Static Characteristics: Functional relationships for the CE configuration of total instantaneous collector current and base voltage in terms of two variables (base current and collector voltage) are given from earlier equations respectively. Such functional relationships are represented by families of characteristic curves of transistors, already described. Two families of curves
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